T14 GROUP3

The Evolution and Implications of Cell Phone Usage

Discussed by Group 3 Members: Lori Fung

CPSC 203-02 T14, Fall Session 2008

Research Statement

 * Since the formal creation of the cell phone over sixty-five years ago, society has developed a growing dependency on digital communications. With many modern cell phone models and service providers to choose from; gifts and incentives can persuade potential clients to sign long-term binding contracts for an often unnecessary and costly service subject to many restrictions. The exponential rate at which technology evolves, and the Bourgeoisie philosophy upon which society operates creates a continuous demand for consumers to own the newest model in spite of the implications surrounding: technological issues, negative environmental impacts, potential health hazards, and dramatic social influences. Society, as the developers of digital technology, has ironically become owned and consumed by their own creation. While cell phones are a continually evolving technology with great purpose, numerous issues also arise from such powerful technology. Society must understand the issues that arise from cell phone usage in order to maintain a balance between personal benefit and societal well-being.

Background Research

 * A cell phone, also known as a mobile phone, wireless phone, or cellular telephone is a long-range, electronic device used for mobile voice or data communication over a network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. While invented with the sole purpose of voice talk and listen functions, current mobile phones support many additional services and accessories. The history of such developments, as well as current and future mobile technology will be further examined to understand the implications of cell phone usage.

Re-Inventing Communications

 * While the idea of cellular communications had already been introduced in 1947 by Bell Laboratories, the concept did not materialize until April 1973 when Dr. Martin Cooper invented and used the first portable wireless handset. As general manager for the systems division at Motorola, Dr. Cooper named the first model Motorola Dyna-Tac. Measuring (9 x 5 x 1.75) inches, the Dyna-Tac weighed 2.5 pounds and contained thirty circuit boards. With simple features like talk, listen, and dial; this cell phone battery supported thirty-five talk minutes, requiring ten hours to recharge. While such features appear primitive to modern standards, the Dyna-Tac marks the very beginning of cellular technology. Over the last sixty-five years, many advancements in the functions and capabilities of cell phones have modified and re-invented the ways in which society communicates in a digital era.

First Generation

 * First generation mobile phones refer to phone systems of the 1980s, launched soon after the trial of the first analogue mobile phone call by Dr. Martin Cooper. The first commercial launch of cellular telecoms was launched by NET in Tokyo Japan in 1979, then the NMT system was launched in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden by 1981. By 1983, the first handheld mobile phone in the US market received approval and was named the Motorola Dyna 8000X. The trend of launching cellular systems continued globally through the 1980s, as Mobile phones began to proliferate with the introduction of cellular phones based on cellular networks using multiple base stations located relatively close to each other. During the first generation, analog transmission was used in all systems and mobile phones were much larger than they are today. These analog systems, for example NIT, AMPS, SACS, RT MI, C-Net, and Radio com, made up the first generation of mobile phones.

Second Generation

 * Second generation mobile phones are defined by the mobile systems, such as GSM, IS-136 (TDMA), iDEN and IS-95 (CDMA), introduced in the 1990s. These phone systems were characterized by digital circuit switched transmission and the introduction of advanced phone to network signaling. The first pre-commercial digital cellular phone call was made in the United States in 1990 and in 1991, the first GSM network opened in Finland. Frequencies used by second generation systems were generally higher than first generation systems, therefore closing down the existing analog systems to make room for the new. With the use of second generation systems, also came the trend away from large phone towards tiny 100 - 200 gram hand-held devices. In the 1990s, SMS text messaging was also introduced on second generation digital networks. The first machine-generated SMS message was sent in the United Kingdom in 1991, while the first person-to-person SMS text message was sent in Finland in 1993. Second generation systems also introduced the ability to consume media content on mobile phones, as Radiolinja (now Elisa) in Finland introduced the downloadable ringing tone as paid content.

Third Generation

 * With the new millennium, came new technology and innovations. Mobile phone projects developed into third generation systems (3G), with competing companies pushing their own technologies. Different from second generation systems, the meaning of third generation has been standardized in the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) standardization processing. IMT-2000 is the global standard for 3G wireless communications as defined by the International Telecommunication Union. This process does not standardize on a technology, but rather on a set of requirements, such as 2 Mbit/s maximum data rate indoors and 384 kbit/s outdoors. In 2001, the first pre-commercial trial network with 3G was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan. Using WCDMA technology, NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial 3G network on October 1, 2001, while in 2002 the first 3G networks on the rival EV-DO technology were launched in South Korea and the USA. WCDMA, Wideband Code Division Multiple Access, is a type of 3G cellular network that transmits on a pair of 5 MHz-wide radio channels, while EV-DO, Evolution-Data Optimized, transmits on one or several pairs of 1.25 MHz radio channels. By the end of 2002, a second WCDMA network was launched in Japan and the first European launches had taken place also on WCDMA. There were eight further commercial launches of 3G by 2003, six using WCDMA and two on the EV-DO standard. By the end of 2007, there were 295 million subscribers on third generation networks worldwide, in which two thirds were on the WCDMA standard and the remaining third on the EV-DO standard. With high data rates, full range multimedia services, and small innovative phones, 3G defines the generation of our phones today. Additional new functions continue to be added to mobile phones, as technology continually advances.

A Visual Summary of the Evolution of Cell Phones To visually represent such drastic evolutions, we can view the cell phone models as they progress through the years. Mobile phones have continued to move towards a smaller, sleeker design and increased functions.

Capabilities and Functions of Today's Mobile Phones

 * While the first mobile phone only had the simple functions of talk, listen, and dial, today, mobile phones have SMS text messaging, voice commands, integrated cameras and media players, Bluetooth, web browsing, and radio or television broadcasts. Designs have moved toward easily accessible, small, and stylish models packed with functions.

Text

 * Text messaging is the common term for the sending of short text messages from mobile phones using Short Message Service (SMS). These messages contain 160 characters or fewer, including spaces, and newer phones can hold up to 20 pages of 160 characters. This function is available on most digital mobile phones and some personal digital assistants with on-board wireless telecommunications. With the introduction of 3G, SMS gateways were developed to connect mobile SMS services with instant message services, the world wide web, desktop computers, and even land-line telephones. Devices able to connect to mobile phones and PDAs through protocols, such as Bluetooth, are also able to use that link to send SMS messages over the wireless network. Though SMS arose as part of the widely deployed GSM protocol, it is now also available with non-GSM systems. The individual messages which are sent are called text messages, texts or SMS. While the most common application of the service is person-to-person messaging, text messages are also used to interact with automated systems or participate in contests. Additionally, services are available on the Internet that allow users to send text messages free of direct charge to the sender.

Camera

 * Camera phones can share pictures instantly using a sharing infrastructure integrated with the carrier network, therefore negating the need for connecting cables or removable media to transfer pictures. Camera phones use CMOS image sensors or CCD type cameras, in which CMOS have a much reduced power consumption compared to CCD. The lower power consumption prevents the camera from quickly depleting the phone's battery. Images are generally saved in the JPEG file format, and the wireless infrastructure manages the sharing. The sharing infrastructure is critical and explains the early successes of J-Phone and DoCoMo in Japan as well as Sprint and other carriers in the United States and the widespread success worldwide. As the camera phone is the result of converging technologies, combining digital cameras with mobile phones, the camera mobile phone is a complex system. Such technology required far less power and a much higher level of camera electronics integration compared with the digital cameras of the 1990s, in order to miniaturize the digital camera into a mobile phone. Introduced in 1990s, CCD and CMOS image sensor technology were the solution. Understanding enabling technology, the first commercial deployment of the camera phone in North America was in 2002, while the first deployment around the globe was slightly earlier. Then in 2006, a Korean company released the first satellite phone with an integrated camera. While the quality of the pictures taken by camera phones was at first rather poor, being only 1 megapixel, now camera phones can take images upto 10 megapixel. As technology continues to advance, so does the quality of camera phones, with competing companies striving to have the most updated models.

Voice Commands and Dialing

 * In accordance with a trend towards more convenience and easily accessibility, most mobile phones of the third generation have voice command functions. Using voice commands, consumers can operate the mobile phone with speech recognition. This also allows for voice dialing, as a means of convenience and hands-free capabilities. While a cunning innovation, voice commands can be difficult to use as the mobile phone does not always recognize commands or is not very effective in noisy environments. Though having its faults, this function has been a step towards developing hands-free mobile phones.

Media Player

 * Phones of the third generation are also capable of broadcasting radio and television channels, as well as playing music from a consumers personal play list. This function was developed in correlation with consumer demand for convenience. While the mobile phone was first invented as a simple means of communication, now, the mobile phone is a all-in-one device. Combining cameras, televisions, radios, and MP3 players all into the cell phone has allowed consumers to access all their technological needs from one device.

Web Browsing

 * Web browsing functions on cell phones are just another example of a trend towards advancing technology and integrating various technologies into one device. This function allows consumers to access the internet and their online needs using their phone. Gone are the days where you needed to be at a computer to access your email. Now at the ease of hand-held mobile phones, consumers can talk, watch, view, and access information.

Cell Phones of the Future

 * The trend towards easily accessible, small, and stylish mobile phones continues as we evaluate potential mobile phones and the concepts developed by various companies around the globe. These companies focus on stylish models, increased functionality, innovative ideas, and new technology.

 
 * For example, the mobile phone concept called Pivot Point developed by Lunar Design (refer to above: top left photo). This handset features a swiveling screen that can be set up like an easel for easy typing with a keyboard attachment. Nokia’s concept of a Morph phone (refer to photo: second left) uses nanotechnology . Their idea demonstrates how cell phones in the future could be stretched and bent into different shapes, allowing users to "morph" their devices into whatever shape they want. The use of nanotechnology might be capable of delivering transparent electronics, flexible materials, and self-cleaning surfaces. The Onyx model by Pilotfish and Synaptics (refer to photo: third left) is a concept featuring a handset with no buttons. Instead, it uses sensor technology to let users dial numbers or open applications with signs and gestures. It also recognizes body parts, in which users could lift the device to their cheek to answer a call. An additional concept developed is a mobile phone that can be transformed into a wristwatch or an alarm clock developed by Maneenawa (refer to photo: fourth left). As a wristwatch, it has a speaker button that lets users talk while driving. These examples of future mobile phones are just a few of the numerous concepts being developed. On a global level, competing companies strive to meet consumer demands with new, innovative mobile phones. These future concepts serve to make our lives easier, but also more dependable on such powerful technology. With such dominant use of mobile phones in our society, many issues arise from this usage.

Technological Issues

 * There are many technological issues involved with mobile phones. For example, the concern of privacy and secure communication, in which mobile phones are easily traceable, have limited encryption, face signal interception, and contain SIM cards with private and personal contents. With many phone models using SIM cards, mobile phones can be traced through the phone's International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) broadcast by the SIM card. It has also proven rather easy to intercept mobile phone signals, allowing a third party to access private communications. In addition, faulty phones are a major technological issue, with numerous repairs and recalls each year requiring additional material and labour. There have even been cases where cell phones explode due to defective batteries. While the causes have not been confirmed, officials infer explosions are due to counterfeit batteries, defective chargers, and potentially poor venting. In 2004, American Federal safety officials reported 83 cases of cell phones exploding or catching fire in the United States alone. While this statistic is small comparative to the number of cell phones, many of these cases included severe burns and injuries. Luckily, no fatalities have been reported but with the increasing use of cell phones, the potential for more such cases exist. Public safety concerns are also present, in which some research studies have shown that mobile use can interfere with airplane signals or be a distraction when fueling with highly flammable gasoline. In these cases, the general public is at risk as mobile phones could potentially cause hazards on air-borne aircraft or gas station explosions. Such drastic risks associated with cell phone usage must be understood by consumers to ensure personal and public safety.

Communication Towers

 * Mobile phones and their usage negatively impact the environment. Radio Signal Towers pollute their in-situ landscape by camouflaging themselves on the tops of buildings and high elevations that disturb the surrounding natural environment and ecosystem. Health concerns exist around the placement of towers that transmit electromagnetic waves near residential areas. Electromagnetic waves emitted from radio towers have been identified as potentially hazardous to the environment around them. As well, it is estimated that more than 10 million night migrating birds collide with communication towers each year. The photograph to the right displays a disguised communication tower as a tree: while it appears nice to us, it is fatal to the birds.

Toxic Disposal

 * Cell phones can be powered by wireless batteries, or alternatively plugged into a power source using: a DC adapter, USB port, car cigarette lighter, or even experimental photovoltaic (solar) cells. Despite the many possible sources of power, wireless batteries are the most popular choice by convenience. The life-span of any rechargeable battery is limited as it is sensitive to variable factors such as recharging-time length, frequency of usage, and chemical composition. The disposal of batteries is inevitable. With cell phones continually evolving into more advanced and newer models, older models are frequently replaced with the new and discarded, contaminating the environment. Cell phone batteries are commonly manufactured using heavy metals. Although alternative energy sources have been investigated, the industry has placed greater emphasis on producing a smaller battery size and lighter weight rather than an environmentally friendly composition.  Cell phones contain toxic compounds such as Arsenic, Beryllium, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, and Copper. Their plastic shells are treated with Brominated Flame Retardants. Found in chip resistors, infrared detectors, and semiconductors, Cadmium is persistent, bio-accumulative, and toxic. Used in lead soldering of printed circuit boards, Lead can accumulate in the environment and have a detrimental effect on plants, animals, and humans. In humans, it causes damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, blood systems, and kidneys. Consumer electronics may be responsible for 40% of this metal found in landfills. Mercury is found on printed circuit boards, discharge lamps, and batteries. Improper disposal of mobile phones allows Mercury to reach waterways, transforming into methylated mercury in the sediments that can cause brain damage if ingested. Brominated Flame Retardants are used on printed circuit boards and plastic covers. Flame retardant Polybrominated Biphenyls may increase cancer risk to the digestive and lymph systems. Once released into the environment through landfill leachate and incineration, they are concentrated in the food chain. With more than 100 million cell phones replaced each year, consumer unawareness has resulted in numerous cases of improper disposal.

Health Issues

 * The widespread use of cell phones has raised concerns about health risks among users. As a result, scientists have been compelled to conduct research studies concerning the health risks of mobile phone usage. While examination into the issue has shown a vast amount of debatable studies and evidence, there is a definite worry regarding potential heightened risk of cancer and brain tumors. As well, the radiation emitted from cell phones may also stunt child brain development, harm male sperm, and cause tumors in the salivary gland or eyes.

Child Brain Development

 * As cellphones are increasingly popular among kids, some scientists worry the devices are a health risk to them. A massive study was conducted by The World Health Organization in 2005, testing if there's a link between cellphone use and brain cancer or other ailments. Cellphones emit electromagnetic radiation and their design requires them to be held close to the user's head. With children skulls being thinner than adults and still developing, scientists are concerned the risk of electromagnetic energy damaging their brains could be greater than the risk for adults. A significant reason for the growing concern is that the wireless industry is increasingly targeting children. For example, already on the market are Hello Kitty phones which are offered jointly by Nokia and the character's creator, Sanrio. Mattel sells a Barbie-branded phone as part of its My Scene product line targeting eight to fourteen year old girls. Verizon Wireless has added Sesame Street and Nickelodeon clips to its V Cast wireless broadband service. And most prominently, the Walt Disney Corporation is joining with Sprint to offer Disney branded wireless phone content. Such examples demonstrate how children have become a favorite new market for mobile services. While there is no proved risk, the vast number of cellphone users means that with even a slight risk to users, it can have a drastic impact on public health.

Brain tumour and Cancer Causing Studies

 * As cell phone antennas emit electromagnetic fields that can penetrate into the human brain, scientists have wondered if this might cause tumors in the head or neck. Drastic increases in cell phone use have further increased the number of research studies regarding cell phones' link to cancer. With worries that radiation emitted from cell phone usage may or may not harm a person's health, studies globally have been conducted in attempt to find a firm conclusion. There have been a number of studies from reputable sources claiming to prove that cell phone usage causes tumors. On the other hand, there are also numerous studies conducted by highly regarded researchers refuting these findings. So, who is right and what can we do to protect ourselves?

Proof

 * In 2004, a research team from the Institute of Environmental Medicine at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden conducted a study finding that using a cell phone for a decade or more quadrupled the risk of developing acoustic neuromas. Acoustic neuromas are slow-growing noncancerous tumors that develop on a nerve linking the brain and the inner ear. These rare tumours can cause hearing loss and be life-threatening if untreated. Occurring in about one person per 100,000 in the general population, acoustic neuromas are not very common. The study, involving 150 acoustic neuroma patients and 600 healthy people, found that the tumors generally developed on the side of the head where the phone was most often held and while finding no association between the tumors and heavy cell phone use, they saw a definite correlation between the length of time individuals had been regular cell phone users and developing tumors. With the World Health Organization sponsoring this research, there are great concerns regarding cell phone health risks. On July 24th 2008, director of the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Dr. Ronald Herberman, issued an advisory to about 3,000 faculty and staff members warning about the possible health risks of using cell phones. While warning adults to limit their cell phone use, Dr. Herberman also advises that children only use cell phones in emergencies as developing organs are most likely to be sensitive to radiation exposure effects. Additionally, if children start using cell phones regularly at a young age, they will be exposed to the radiation for a longer duration of their lifetime than adults. While numerous warnings and studies have been conducted before Dr. Herberman's, the National Cancer Institute in the United States claims he is the first cancer center director to approve such an advisory. The examples above are just a few of the numerous studies regarding the usage of cell phones causing tumors and cancer. While there many more studies supporting such findings, there are just as many studies refuting these conclusions.

No Proof

 * In May 2000, an expert British panel concluded that the weight of available evidence indicated no adverse health effects from the use of cell phones but cautioned that children should only use them in emergencies. An additional study conducted in 2006 and published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute concluded that long or short-term cell phone use is not associated with increased cancer risk. According to this study by Joachim Schiz, Ph.D., of the Danish Institute of Cancer Epidemiology, in which colleagues performed a study of 420,095 cell phone users who first subscribed between 1982 - 1995 and were observed through 2002, findings contradict the Swedish studies that an increased risk of brain tumors are linked to cell phone use of more than a decade. Dr. Schiz concluded through her study that there was no association between cell phone use and brain tumors, salivary gland tumors, eye tumors, leukemia, or various cancer risks. Regarding Dr. Ronald Herberman's case (mentioned above) in July 2008, the Associated Press in the United States found Herberman's warning was "contrary to numerous studies that don't find a link between cancer and cell phone use, and a public lack of worry by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration." In fact, Herberman himself noted that no conclusive evidence yet exists that firmly proves wireless phones cause cancer. While there is no positive proof that cell phones are dangerous, there is also no proof they are safe.

Better Safe than Sorry

 * With a vast number of studies regarding cell phone health risks, it is undeniable that there is a significant safety concern. These studies are controversial, and while there is no evidence firmly proving either side, it is better to be safe rather than sorry in regards to personal health. Precautions can be taken to limit the health risks. Some precautionary actions as advised by Dr. Herberman include:


 * • Use cellphones for short conversations or when a conventional phone isn't available.


 * • Use a hands-free device that will place more distance between the cellphone's antenna and your head. The antenna emits radio-frequency waves. And your brain lies just beyond your ears.


 * • Limit children cellphone use -- both to reduce their exposure at a time when their brains are still developing and to reduce their lifetime exposure. (Unlike us, they still have a lot of years left.)


 * • In the car, use an external antenna mounted outside the vehicle.


 * • Keep the phone away from your body when it's turned on. Men, don't clip it to your belt.


 * • Check your phone's SAR value at the Federal Communications Commission website. This value, for Specific Absorption Rate, is the amount of radio-frequency absorbed from the phone into the user's tissues.


 * (Dr. Ronald Herberman, 2008)


 * http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2008/07/cell_phone_cancer.html

Technological Dependency

 * With the increasing functions and capabilities of modern cell phone models, societies heavy dependence on this technology for communications should not be surprising. While there are technological, environmental, and health implications involving cell phones, most dramatically, cell phones have a major impact on our society. With roughly 2.2 billion cell phone subscribers worldwide and 12.8% of American households only using cell phones and no land lines, society’s growing dependency on cell phones is obvious. Its use affects our every-day lives, with cell phones interrupting our daily activities and posing safety hazards.

Social Discourtesy

 * While many state that the cell phone is something they can’t live without, they also state it is one of the most annoying devices. Cell phones commonly interfere with social events, personal relations, and education. They are often used in neglect of others' considerations. Cell phone usage can be a common social discourtesy, as hospitals, events, theaters, offices, schools, libraries, and even restaurants are increasingly restricting the use of specific functions and capabilities of cell phones, or their use entirely. While mobile phones have developed functions to limit disruptions, such as text messaging or silent mode, the use of any cell phone function is very absorbing, distracting, and potentially dangerous - especially when attempting to perform other tasks simultaneously.

Dangerous Distraction

 * With cell phone use rapidly escalating around the globe, the use of cell phones while driving has also increased significantly. Recent studies suggest that driving while using a cell phone produces an effect similar to being intoxicated. The evidence is around us, as fatal traffic accidents occur as a result of cell phone usage on a global level. Distracted and absorbed by their mobile phone, there have been numerous cases of drivers running red lights, losing control of their vehicle, and swerving. Studies with correlating results have led to much legislation around the world.


 * In Canada, particular provinces such as Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Quebec have implemented legislation making it illegal to use a hand-held cell phone while driving. In Newfoundland and Labrador, for instance, a driver who causes a collision by using a cellular phone or who is observed driving unsafely while using the device could be charged under a number of other provincial, territorial or federal laws including, but not limited to, those related to dangerous driving, careless driving and criminal negligence causing death or injury. These Canadian laws do not apply to hands-free phones or other electronic devices, but the provinces advise drivers to avoid using any type of cell phone while operating a vehicle. Motorists caught talking on a hands-held cell phone while driving face fines ranging from $45 - $180, and will also be assigned four demerit points in keeping with similar imprudent driving penalties. While there are no other Canadian jurisdictions banning cell phone use while driving, many of the other provinces are considering legislation. Ontario, for example, is considering a broader law that would deal with distractions caused by cell phones, mp3 players, and GPS systems. In the United States, lawmakers in many states have also implemented similar legislation. According to the Governors Highway Safeway Association, five states have enacted statewide bans against using a hand-held cell phone while driving and local jurisdictions have also done so. As society recognizes the hazards of cell phone use, legislation has been implemented and innovations created. Automakers and cell phone companies have focused on hands-free phoning and developing technology to counter these issues in their new designs.

Conclusion

 * The cell phone is a considered to be a modern day convenience, even in light of the many cultural and societal impacts it imposes. Through evaluating the evolution and implications of cell phones, we demonstrate the importance of understanding the technology we use. Our increased dependency on continually advancing technology shows the significant impact of cell phones on society. Consumers must understand all the implications in order to make better decisions. While cell phones personally benefit our individual desires, there are costs. Consumers who understand these costs can protect themselves and others by minimizing safety risks, conserving the environment, and using cell phones with consideration for others. Understanding the costs and limiting them are vital to maintaining a healthy personal lifestyle and society.