Evan Thomas Protected Recreation Area Group Project

Background History (Colin)
Who was Evan-Thomas? Rear Admiral Sir Hugh Evan-Thomas served in the First World War and fought at the battle of Jutland in 1916 (http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=3107, 2002). Commander of the 5th Battle Cruiser Squadron, Evan-Thomas participated with his flagship, the Barham, in the first and only head on naval battle against the Germans, where the Germans were outnumbered and defeated.

It has been a common practice to name areas, mountains and cliffs after renowned war veterans like Evan-Thomas, or even the names of ships that were part of the Royal Navy. Another example is Mount Sparrowhawk within the Bow Valley Wildland Provincial Park.. The Sparrowhawk was an S class destroyer that first set sail in 1918 (http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/HMS-Sparrowhawk, 2005). Evan-Thomas Provincial Recreation Area was established in 1982.

Important of note is that Evan-Thomas is a protected recreation area, which is a natural or man-made area that supports outdoor activities, and their primary purpose is for outdoor recreation (http://gateway.cd.gov.ab.ca/aboutparks.aspx, 2008). Evan-Thomas Recreation Area is the only point within Kananaskis that was developed for the sole purpose of leisure activity and recreation with activities to enjoy such as Golfing, Skiing, Rafting, Hiking, Biking, Camping and so on.

The Evan-Thomas Recreation Area is nestled within Kananaskis country, surrounding Kananaskis Village in the Rocky Mountains. Historically, it was used as a travel route by native tribes to move between the mountains and the prairies for thousands of years. The definition of ‘Kananaskis’ is roughly translated as ‘meeting of waters’ (http://www.bivouac.com/ArxPg.asp?ArxId=2131, 2007).

John Palliser, the inspirational English explorer that explored much of western Canada in the 1800’s, was commissioned by the British Government to investigate the expansive and unexplored region in search for resources such as gold. After associating with the local natives, Palliser decided to name the region Kananaskis, after a native that had managed to survive a grievous axe wound to the head. It was not gold, however, that would be the most sought resource in Kananaskis. Coal was discovered in abundance throughout the mountains and led to the construction of Canmore and a couple of very small mining villages called Kovach, and Nordegg. Nordegg serviced the northern coal fields, while Kovach serviced the strip mine on the south eastern slopes of Mount Allan, an underground mine build shortly thereafter, and mines that ran through Nakiska mountain. Kovach was simply known as Ribbon Creek because it was such a small community that it never developed into a real town, and it was located at where Kananaskis Village now stands, where Ribbon Creek runs. The close proximity to the existing rail lines was quite important to the strategy of coal mining in Kananaskis. Rail lines meant a closer American and Eastern Canadian market, and would of course allow mining development at a lower cost. Serious coal mining first began in the northern coal fields in about 1909, and then nearly four decades later was the development of the Kananaskis coal mines of Ribbon Creek. In 1952, however, the bottom of the coal market fell through, resulting in the abandonment of the villages and the mine. Canmore remained and became much more dependant on tourism and logging. Then, in 1976, the Canadian Government declared Kananaskis country a provincial park and prohibited any more mining. Kananaskis village was built on top of the remnants of the old mining village of Ribbon Creek as a leisure complex, including hotels, a ski lodge, a couple of golf courses, and Nakiska Ski resort was born in 1988 for the Winter Olympic Games (http://www.canmorealberta.com/directory/about/history/kananaskis.html, 2008).

Area Description (Colin)
Located within the heart of Kananaskis Country lies Evan-Thomas Provincial Recreation Area, which surrounds Kananaskis Village. Designed mostly for recreational purposes, this 4400 hectare land mass has an abundance of activities for anyone in the world to enjoy. The reason why this area was made into a recreation area is definitely not trivial. Expansive bio-diversity, beautiful scenery, mountains, river systems, wildlife, and forest land did not go un-noticed after all these years. “The varied slopes, elevations and aspects of this area along with the prevailing winds, sunshine and moisture regimes, create a very diverse vegetative and faunal communities as well as high scenic qualities” (Alberta Parks and Protected Areas Division, 2004). Originally when development first occurred in the area, coal was the main objective. However, when coal was deemed to be a less than adequate reason to be in the area, the tourism equation (or the human equation) took over. The remarkable construct of nature that is Evan-Thomas recreation area was viewed to be highly profitable and this is not because of resource extraction. Thus, a vast assortment of facilities were built including Kananaskis Village, the Kananaskis Country Golf Course, the Nakiska Ski Resort, as well as many hiking/biking trails, picnic spots, lookout spots and campgrounds. Even the river system that flows along the eastern side of Evan-Thomas area is used for some water related sports like Kayaking and Rafting. As shown in the Kananaskis Valley Map, we can see the collective facilities and services offered throughout Evan-Thomas area, as well as the surrounding parks that make up Kananaskis. (Kananaskis Valley Map goes here)

Map 2 shows more a more detailed picture of where the various facilities are located within Evan-Thomas Recreation Area. There is indeed a great deal to do here. (Map 2 goes here)

Also important of note is the portion of Evan-Thomas area that isn’t used strictly for recreation. Map 3 will give an idea of which places are preserved, natural, used for forestry, roads, areas for possible expansion and future development, and so on. (map 3 goes here)

Objective of Paper (To be completed after rough draft)

 * what we want the reader to understand/come away with

Physical Geography (Merissa)
Physical Geography This section involves details of the geology, soils, topography and weather and climate that affect ETPRA. The processes which have formed the physical landscape in ETPRA have taken approximately 300 million years when the rocks began to form beneath the ocean floor. The mountains have subsequently been altered from their original structure due to chemical and physical weathering which includes; glacial alteration, frost action, and mass wasting. Soils in ETPRA vary depending on elevation, parent material, vegetation cover, slope and aspect. Weather and climate are the final topic discussed in this section and are influenced by factors such as the seasons, the location relative to the ocean and elevation.

Geological History Looking up at the peak of Mount Kidd and in ETPRA, it is difficult to imagine this area was once the western edge of present day North America. Mount Kidd, 2958m at its highest peak, presents a perfect example of the sedimentary structure of the area and the folding structure of the geology with the presence of an anticline and a syncline. The formations which are present on this mountain are Exshaw, which is part of lower Banff, Upper Banff, Livingstone, Mount Head, and Etherington. The mountains within ETPRA were formed during two orogenies, which are periods of mountain building (www.mountainnature.com). The first was the Columbia Orogeny which occurred 175 to 120 million years ago. This is when the thrust-faulting that created present day British Columbia occurred. Thrust faulting occurs where two plates converge and is the also the main mechanism of mountain building in the second orogeny. The Laramide Orogency began approximately 85 million years ago and is responsible for the formation of the Rocky Mountains and Rocky Mountain foothills (www.mountainnature.com). This area is on the eastern side of the North American Cordillera and is referred to as the Rocky Mountain Thrust and Fold Belt or Foreland Belt (McMechan, p1. See Table ?). Within ETPRA there are a number of mountains which have formed as a result of thrust faulting. The sedimentary rocks at the summit of the mountains were formed 300 million years ago at the bottom of the ocean. “Sedimentary rocks result from compression of the layered sediments on the bottom of a large body of water.” (www.mountainnature.com). The specific rocks that comprise the mountains are limestone, dolomite, sandstone and shale. Limestone is predominantly made up of calcite which is formed “from remains of shells and micro-skeletons deposited on the sea bed” (http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/ limestoneinfo.html). Over time they compressed and formed the layers that can be seen by looking at the mountains. Dolomite is a mineral called calcium magnesium carbonate. Sandstone is clastic rock comprised of quartz or feldspar. It is formed when sand particles, suspended in water such as the ocean, settle to the bottom and are compacted by subsequent layers settling on top. Shale is formed in the same. Since the minerals in shale are smaller than sandstone, they remain suspended in water for longer but eventually settle in slow moving water and become compacted by other layers forming on top of them. Along with the other types of rocks, coal was discovered in the area. “Coal is formed when peat is altered physically and chemically” (http://www.uky.edu/KGS/coal/coalform.htm). Processes which transform the peat into coal include; bacterial decay, compaction resulting in water loss, heat which aids in the breakdown of hydrocarbon compounds and time.

Soils There is a variety of soil types found in ETPRA due to elevation, parent material and vegetation cover. The dominant parent material in the area is limestone. Weathering of this material occurs during the spring when the snow and ice melts and in the beginning of soil creation. Orange and green lichens in the area aid in breaking down parent materials. The breakdown of these parent materials releases Calcium carbonate from the limestone which is carried downstream in solution and deposited in the soil. Through eluviation, calcium carbonate is transported to the B horizon where it is precipitated in the process called calcification (Physical Geog, p. 634). The upper organic layer of soil is least developed at high elevations and highly developed at low elevations due to the dense vegetation cover. The trees in this area are predominantly conifers which cause the soils are highly acidic. Slope and aspect impact soil formation, steep slopes have little soil formation because it is removed quickly by erosion. Aspect affects soil temperature and water (Physical Geog, p. 637). Soils on the south side of slopes have cool and moist soils, while soils on the north side have warmer, drier soils. Soil orders likely to be found in ETPRA are; luvisolic, brunisolic, regosolic, gleysolic, and organic. These orders were determined using the Soil Survey of Areas within Kananaskis Provincial Park, Alberta and Interpretation for Recreational Use (Greenlee, G.M.). The areas surveyed have similar geology to that of ETPRA and are upstream of the area so the fluvial sediments will be similar. There are various soil subgroups, as the parent material varies dramatically over the area. The dominant soil orders are luvisolic, brunisolic, gleysolic and organic. The Luvisolic soil order is characterized by eluvial A horizons and illuvial B horizons. They are found in areas with deciduous or mixed forest vegetation. The Brunisolic soil order has limited horizon development and is found in variety of areas due to their ability to form under a variety of climatic and vegetative conditions. The Gleysolic soil order develops under wet conditions. The Organic soil order contains at least 17% organic carbon and is saturated for most of the year. ( http://www.environment.ualberta.ca/ SoilsERM/class.html).

Topography The terrain as we see it now has been shaped over time by periods of glaciations, and both chemical and physical weathering. Glaciers form in existing river beds but end up drastically altering the landscape before they melt and become rivers again. As a result of glaciations, rivers have formed in the U shaped valleys between the mountains and the rivers have subsequently shaped the valleys located within ETPRA. The river brings sediment from the upper regions of the mountains and deposits it along the river banks with the majority of sediment deposit occurring in Spring when the rivers flow the fastest. (www.mountainnature.com). The rivers as we see them today have changed over time and, in recent years, there has been a decline in water levels. Seasonal changes also occur, with the spring seeing the highest average water levels due to runoff from snowmelt. The grain shape of the sediment deposited (Mt Kidd Rv Park pic) are rounded which indicates they have been highly weathered and have likely come a long distance from where they originated. At higher elevations the main agent of weathering is frost action which is when rocks go through cycles of cooling and contracting followed by periods of expanding causing joints to develop where the rock fractured. During the day snow melts and water seeps into the joints; at night the water freezes and expands and eventually causes a portion of rock to break off. These portions of rock are usually angular and are known as talus (Physical Geog, p.420). In a similar way to frost action, the action of trees on steep slopes rooting in joints can lead to large pieces of rock falling off. Limestone is the dominant rock found in the Rocky Mountains and is particularly susceptible to chemical weathering. It reacts with rainwater containing carbonic acid causing the calcium carbonate to dissolve and be carried away in stream water (Physical Geog, p. 425). This type of weathering increases the likelihood of mass wasting. Avalanches, landslides, soil creep and slumping are other types of mass wasting that have significantly impacted the area. They are caused by the mass movement, due to gravity, of bedrock, soil, or snow quickly and without warning. Evidence of landslides are visible on Mount Kidd (see mt kidd pic).

Weather & Climate
The weather and climate in ETPRA is predominantly determined by elevation and aspect. The dominant climatic patterns are determined by orographic lifting which impacts the area dependant on whether they are located on the west or east side of the mountains. Warm humid air moving into western North America by a wind system called the ‘pineapple express’ is then carried inland due to prevailing winds; it is forced up the westerly slope of the mountain due to a process called orographic lifting. The warm air cools as it is forced upwards and condenses forming clouds and precipitating on the western slopes of the mountains. On the eastern side of the mountains the air now has very little moisture left, but is all the same quite cold, dense, and sinks. Density is the primary reason why air rises or falls and is directly related to temperature and pressure. This phenomenon is known as a rain shadow effect and is associated with what is commonly known as a Chinook. This process becomes important when looking at the affect of aspect on vegetation distribution. Aspect in the North-South plane and East-West plane is important when looking at overall patterns of weather and climate. North facing slopes are sunnier and wetter than south facing slopes. East facing slopes are much drier due to the rain shadow effect. It is inferable that there is a richer bio-diversity on the western slopes simply because if there is more moisture, there will be more vegetation.

Temperatures can be noticeably different depending on the aspect of the slope. North facing slopes receive more direct solar radiation in the summer months so they will be warmer than south facing slopes. Overall, direct solar radiation is the highest in the summer months and lowest in the winter months, so corresponding temperatures will be higher in the summer than the winter. Altitude plays an important role in temperature as well. For every increase in 1000 meters of altitude, the temperature will drop on average by 6 or 7 degrees Celsius. This effect is called the environmental lapse rate (double check this - Climate Text Reference). The atmosphere at higher elevations is thinner and less capable of holding heat so it will lose any heat that it gains quickly during the night due to radiative heat loss. Winds will increase at higher elevations due to the fact that the valleys provide shelter from them and the wind will make the temperature *feel* colder, but the actual air temperature will remain the same. This effect is known as wind chill (Climate text reference). In the winter, the polar jet stream will move south of ETPRA which brings with it cold air masses from the Arctic Circle.

Environment Canada has weather stations at the summit (check this) of Nakiska Ski Resort, and at a lower elevation within ETPRA. Examining this data in Table (Mean Monthly Temperature will prove some of the variations in weather and climate discussed above. Temperatures in the winter months are colder than temperatures in the summer months for both locations. The Nakiska weather station is located at an elevation of 2543m whereas the Evan-Thomas weather station is located at 2164m which explains part of the variation in temperatures. Since the Nakiska ski resort is a southern facing slope, there is less incoming solar radiation and therefore less heat.  Also, green vegetation around the Evan-Thomas weather station will yield a lower albedo rate, which simply means that it will reflect less solar radiation and allow for more absorption.  Heat is always in greater measurable quantities when solar radiation is absorbed rather than reflected. At Nakiska, there is initially much more snow because it is a southern facing slope and so it has a high albedo rate and most of the incoming radiation is reflected out. Thus, temperatures at Nakiska are colder year-round than down below in the interior of ETPRA (See graphs: Nakiska Mean Temperature and Evan Thomas Mean Temperature).

Changing Landscape
Logging in what is now ETPRA first began in 1886. Along with logging, coal mining was also one of the first resource industries in the area. Natural disturbances also historically relevant to the area include the occurrences of avalanches and forest fires. In 1936 one very large forest fire stripped.....of the land. Evidence of the fire and widespread logging can be seen today in the ETPRA with the prevalence of even aged forest stands. In 1974 in an effort to study the hydrological effects of clearcutting, 5 blocks of forest within the ETPRA were clear cut but reforested with coniferous. Other efforts to reclaim the land also occurred in the 1960's when the Ribbon Creek coal mine closed. As part of the reclamation effort, 6.5 hectares of land were revegetated with a mixture of grass and legume in the lower slopes of Mt. Allan (ACD 2004). With the establishment of ETPRA in 1982 development began to impact the landscape seen today. The development of the Kananaskis Golf Course which occurred in 1986 was built at the expense of ...land and also required that Ribbon Creek be disturbed. Today 5% of ETPRA is man made forest openings.

Life Zones and Vegetation
Evan-Thomas encompasses a number of life zones including Montane, Subalpine and Alpine. These life zones are characteristic of mountainous slopes, forested valleys and changes in elevation. In the north end and valley bottom of Evan-Thomas where elevation is approximately 1400 m, riparian zones can be found adjacent to the Kananaskis River. These habitats are a transitional zone of montane, mixed wood, and small open grasslands (ACD 2004). Insert picture of mountain and life zones? The montane life zone can be found at the lowest elevations of Evan-Thomas in and around 1400m. It extends into the mouth of the Kananaskis valley with timberline forming in its upper limits (Hallworth and Chinnappa 1997). The montane forests are dry, open and consist of a mix of coniferous and deciduous trees, shrubs and herbaceous species. These forests can be primarily found within broad valley bottoms and southerly exposed slopes (Patton 1975). The montane zone is characterized mainly by the presence of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) trees. However due to grazing, logging and fire, even-aged stands dominate the landscape. One the biggest influences on the present day vegetation is the Galatea fire which occurred in Evan-Thomas and the surrounding area in 1936. It completely wiped out all the vegetation in its path, making way for new growth which can still be seen today (ACD 2004). As a result, the most dominant tree in the montane life zone today is the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) (Figure 1). The lodgepole pine is distinguishable by its long needles (2 to 3 inches long) and small prickly cones (1 to 2 inches) which remain closed until heated by fire; making the lodgepole a fire-successional species (Patton 1975). Insert drawing of lodpole pine cone Other common coniferous tree species found in the Montane life zone are Douglas Fir and Limber Pine (Pinus flexilis). In comparison douglas fir is classified as a fire resistant tree. Douglas fir, along with a variety of spruce trees are late-successional climax trees in the forest ecosystem and eventually replace pioneering trees such as lodgepole pine. Some characteristics of the douglas fir are deeply furrowed bark and the 'pitchfork' shaped bracts which stick out from beneath the scales of the cones (Patton 1975). Common deciduous tress found in the montane life zone include western cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) and the most dominant deciduous tree, the aspen poplar (Populus tremuloides) or “trembling aspen”. The western cottonwood is the largest hardwood tree found in western North America and was most likely harvested in Evan-Thomas for timber and other fiber products. It is most commonly found in moist sites such as the riparian zones of the Kananaskis river (DeBell 2008). Balsam poplar is a medium sized broadleaved hardwood. Leaves are alternate and ovate with dioecious flowers which appear in may (Patton 1975). Balsam poplar can be found on sites rich in nutrients and in small, localized stands where black spruce (Picea mariana) and balsam fir (Abies balsamea) are also found (Runesson 2008). The aspen poplar, known for its waxy, white bark, is also a fire-succession species which grows well on open slopes (Patton 1975). Aspen meadows can also be found in Evan-Thomas particularily where low slopes meet open meadows. One very distinct transition zone of aspen meadow and spruce forest is located adjacent the old townsite of Kovach along the Troll Falls pathway (Figure 2). Insert picture of transition zone between aspen meadow/coniferous forest Dominant shrub species common to the montane life zone are the buffaloberry (Shepherdia), common juniper (Juniperus communis), prickly rose (Rosa acicularis) and in wetland and riparian zones, wolf willow (Elaeagnus commutata) is common. The buffaloberry is native to North America and is quite abundant in Evan-Thomas. Berries on this shrub are available from september through may and are an important food resource to a number of wildlife. Some of the wildlife which feed on the buffaloberry include deer, grouse, bear and sheep. Juniper can also be found throughout the area and is useful in providing food but mainly shelter to many songbirds (Hallworth and Chinnappa 1997). Prickly rose (Rosa acicularis) is frequent throughout most of the province and is known for its small and beautiful pink flowers (Figure 3). Its abundance and popularity in the 1930's has led to this flower being designated as Alberta's official floral emblem. Insert picture of prickly rose Common herbaceous ground species in the montane include northern bedstraw (Galium boreale), prairie groundsel (packera plattensis), hairy wild rye (Elymus innovatus), northern twinflower (Linnaea borealis) and some grasses: june grass (Koeleria macrantha) and sweet grass (Hierochloe odorata). With exception to the grasses, the montane herbaceous species are typical of woodland habitats. Northern bedstraw, the most common of the six native bedstraws, is found mainly on roadsides of Evan-Thomas. Twinflower, which has small pink bell-shaped flowers can usually be found under the shade of spruce and pine where conditions are cool and moist (Cormack 1977). Sweet grass, also known as vanilla grass or holy grass, also like moist conitions and can be found inhabiting meadows within Evan-Thomas. Hairy wild rye, similar to a grass, can typically be found in open woods, river banks and although it is not very palateable, it can serve as a food resource for wildlife and provide shelter for small mammals (Cormack 1977). The subalpine ecoregion is the largest life zone found in Evan-Thomas and is present along the forested slopes of Mount Kidd and Mount Allan at elevations above 1400 m. Climax tree species in the subalpine include engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and white spruce (Picea glauca). The white spruce is a commonly harvested tree in the area and can be used for a variety of pulp products. Both trees are very similar with prickly stiff needles and smooth-margined cones however white spruce is typically found at a lower elevation and engelmann spruce at higher elevation (Patton 1975). Engelmann spruce also typically dominates wet sites such as along streams or on loamy soils (Hallworth and Chinnappa 1997). Another climax tree species found in the subalpine region is the sub-apline fir (Abies lasiocarpa). The sub-alpine fir has soft, flat needles and cones which only grow in the crown of the tree. Alpine larch (Larix lyallii) and whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) are also common to this life zone. Alpine larch has a distinct form which is often twisted and gnarled and is found in high elevations of the subalpine such as areas of Marmot basin where elevation is 2000 m (Figure 4). Whitebark pine is similar in appearance to limber pine and has a twisted form like the alpine larch. The whitebark pine, however has needles which are between 2 to 3 inches and cones averaging 3 inches or less (Patton 1975). Insert picture of alpine larch Along the western edge of Evan-Thomas lies the Alpine life zone. This life zone is found on the summit and steep slopes of Mount Allan and Mount Kidd where elevation reaches 2800 m. Along these slopes, sunshine, moisture and prevailing winds allow for rapid growth of many herbaceous plant species. Common herbaceous species include the rgiant red indian paintbrush (Castilleja miniata), buttercups (Ranunculus sceleratus), red mountain heather (Phyllodoce breweri), and alpine veronica (Veronica wormskjoldii). Trees are limited in this zone but open alpine meadows and small tree islands of alpine fir can still be found in select areas of the Alpine (ACD 2004). On the steep slopes of the subalpine and alpine zones, aspect can also play a key role in the distribution and abundance of vegetation. Sunlight along the south-facing avalanche slopes is much greater than on north-facing slopes. This results in a much earlier snow melt on the south side of the slopes and a rise in early successional herbaceous species. Relative species on south-facing slopes include rough fescue (Festuca altaica), harebell (Campanula parryi), brome grass (Bromus carinatus) and wild strawberry (Fragaris virginiana). In late spring when snow begins to melt on the north-facing slopes species such as net-leaved dwarf willow (Salix reticulata), alpine milk vetch (Astragalus alpinus L.), and northern goldenrod (Solidago multiradiata) will begin to grow. This an important characteristic for wildlife, specifically for bears, who after hibernation are looking to find adequate nutrition on the steep slopes of Evan-Thomas. For a summary of all the dominant vegetation found in Evan-Thomas please see Appendix 1.

Wildlife
Evan-Thomas is located in an important wildlife corridor where a variety of wildlife can be found and of which are supported by the montane, subalpine, and alpine life zones (See appendix...list of all wildlife). As most mammals in Evan-Thomas are able to move from one life zone to the next, the areas where wildife tend to inhabit depends on seasonal changes and the availability of food supply (Patton 1975). In the mountain park region slightly more than 200 species of birds have been recorded (Patton 1975). Many of these birds are migratory and few actually permanently reside in Evan-Thomas. Precise estimates on the actual populations of birds home to Evan-Thomas are therefore not known. Some of the common birds which can be found in Evan-Thomas include the gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis), clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana), black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapilla) and franklin's grouse (Canachites franklinii). Smaller mammal species which inhabit the park include the pika (Ochotona princeps), least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus), columbian ground squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), hoary marmot (Marmota caligata), beaver (Castor canadensis), muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) and the porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) (Patton 1975). While the birds play an important role in harvesting seeds of many of the tree species in Evan-Thomas, the small mammals such as squirrels, are important foragers of the forest floor. With the ability of flight and a large migratory range, birds have access to an abundant seed supply. Once digested, birds harvest seeds across a large area of the forest while releasing excrament during flight (Nijhuis 2004). The clark's nutcracker, who prefers the highly nutritious cones of the whitebark pine, are a perfect example of the importance of birds in the reproductive success of trees. While most birds contribute to harvesting seeds of various shrub and trees species it is said that “the clark's nutcracker will plant an entire forest in a lifetime”  (MFWP 2006). The small mammals, such as the red squirrel, also feed upon the cones of the coniferous trees in the different life zones. They too prefer the high nutirious value of the whitebark pine cones but instead of distributing the seeds throughout the forest floor during flight, these small mammals stockpile the cones just below the top soil (Nijhuis 2004). Some of the larger wildlife which can be found in Evan-Thomas include white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), elk (Cervus canadensis), moose (Alces alces), bighorn sheep, (Ovis canadensis), cougars (Felis Concolor), wolves (Canis lupus), grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribills) and black bears (Ursus Americanus). Most of these animals have been known to occupy the area in high concentrations during the period of european settlement. Since the european settlement, populations of ungulates and predators have decreased from a combination of overhunting, habitat fragmentation and diseases brought on by domestic livestock (ESRWW 1994). Since then, regulations on hunting and proper management of development have been created to ensure that wildlife populations may remain stable. Hunting is currently allowed in the NW corner of Evan-Thomas but regulations of how hunting is conducted under the Wildlife Act are strictly enforced (ACD 2004). It wasn't until the 1950's that population estimates, mainly through use of aerial photography, for many of the wildlife in the area have been recorded. With the lack of information on the population of many species in Evan-Thomas and the surrounding area, the success of current management plans is diffucult to measure. Nonetheless, sustainable development in areas with high concentrations of wildlife in Evan-Thomas is encouraged and further research into wildlife and their interactions with the ecosystem are still being conducted. Bighorn sheep, which are known to have one of the most historical ranges in the area, are one of the major ungulate species in the area that were found to be highly abundant during european settlement but since then have witnessed a population decrease. The Sheep River Wildlife Sanctuary which lies adjacent to Evan-Thomas in the SE corner provides a sanctuary to the bighorn sheep and provides a key area for research to be conducted on sheep populations (See Map...). What their studies found was that populations have increased over the last 50 years but that several catastrophic hits of pneumonia have caused population declines (ESRWW 1994). Whether or not the Sheep River Sanctuary has provided a safe haven for Bighorn Sheep is questionable but studies in the sanctuary do provide insight to the overall population stability of Bighorn Sheep in the eastern slopes region and its relation to sheep in Evan-Thomas. A unique characteristic of Evan-Thomas is that despite its tolerance for recreational activities, the largest bighorn sheep herd in all of the Kananaskis Valley do reside there (ACD 2004). The population estimates for this herd are appriximately 300 in size and tend to inhabit areas of open slopes, meadows along river valleys and areas where escape terrain is in close proximity (< 300 m) (Komex 1994). Bighorn sheep can are typically sought out by top predators such as cougars and because they are not very good long distance runners, escape terrain such as steep slopes and mountain ridges are prime habitats. Winter ranges for the herd in Evan-Thomas are typically restricted to areas where snow is limited. These areas can be found on the south and southwest facing slopes of Evan-Thomas (ACD 2004). Elk, which are considered an adaptable species in the area, can be found in dense forests, wide open plains, rugged mountains and aspen dominated ranchlands (Komex 1994). Elk populations are estimated at approximately 60 to 80 elk and can be found in many habitats along the Kananaskis River bottom. Current population in the recreational area are said to be stable with populations increasing over the last 10 years (ACD 2004). Due to their opportunistic behaviours, elk tend to be shaped by their social and traditional behaviours. Elk are known to migrate to and from their summer ranges but the distance at which they migrate can vary based upon behaivoural adaptations (ESRWW 1994). The presence of human activities in Evan-Thomas can create opportunities for this species to migrate and inhabit different vegetative communities. For instance, Elk frequently use the Kananaskis Golf Course as their winter range (Komex 1994 and ACD 2004). At this time recreational activites on the golf course are closely monitored so that human interference is limited. Other important winter and summer ranges for elk can also be found in the benchland slopes west of Kananaskis River and below Mt. Kidd (ACD 2004). One of the top predators in Evan-Thomas and the largest wild cat in North America is the cougar. They are obligate predators, which means that their principal habitat is closely liked to that of their prey. For this reason, cougars inhabitat the many diverse habitats of their prey which consists of young moose, elk, deer and bighorn sheep (ESRWW 1994). This habitat includes high and low foothills of the montane and aspen parkland but also areas with large forest cover where they can easily hide and stalk prey. Cougars are also good climbers and can travel along ridgetops and south facing slopes where ungulate populations tend to be during their winter range. Populations for this predator have been hard to estimate in the area due to its distribution at low densities, high mobility and its extremely shy behaviour to human activities (ESRWW 1994). The home range of the cougar is typically 158 km2 for females and 365 km2 for males. The difference in home range between male and female cougars is due to the fact that females occupy areas which meet the nutritional needs of themselves and their offsprings. Males on the other hand are territorial and maximize breeding opportunities by overlapping areas of several female home ranges. As cougars are also shy to human activity, their home range also tend to be areas away from roads, logging activities and few or no sites of human residence (ESRWW 1994). In one study conducted on the sensitivity of human activity on cougars, results indicated that cougars also become increasingly nocturnal near human presence (Van Dyke et al. 1986). Their sensitivity to human development, dependence on ungulate populations and lack of understanding of the cougar, make the cougar a key species in the Evan-Thomas area. Evan-Thomas, which promotes human activity and causes habitat fragmentation of ungulate populations is at risk for the loss of cougar populations. Other predatory mammals which lie at the top of the food chain in Evan Thomas also share this characteristic dependence, making them highly susceptible to human disturbance (Figure...to food web). With proposals for further development in Evan-Thomas, interactions between humans and wildlife can become an increasing common occurrence and result in major conflicts between wildlife groups and local businesses. Wildlife species which are sensitive to human activities are already at considerable risk in the area. These species include the grizzly bear and the wolf. The grizzly bear was extirpated in most areas of Alberta after over hunting during european settlement but survived in the foothills and mountains of southern alberta. Due to regulations in the 1960's and 1970's, some of the grizzly bear population have been able to stabilize but illegal hunter killings at the time still occurred in what is now Kanananaskis country (EsRWW 1994). Today bear habitat overlaps with human habitat in Evan-Thomas, and most killings occur as a result of human safety or automobile collisions. Grizzly bears not only have low resilience to human disturbance but also large spatial needs. The home range for female grizzly bears is approximately 300 km2 while the male home range is as large as 1500km2 (Komex 2004). These large and differing spatial needs of the grizzly bears are similar to that of the cougar. While females tend to inhabit protected areas with available resources for her cubs, male bears are territorial and inhabit large areas to increase their opportunities for mating (EERWW 1994). According to the Eastern Slopes Grizzly Bear Project, this difference in home range between males and females is the largest contributor to the find of the mjority of bear deaths involving male bears (Benn et al. 1998). Their large home range is also affected by the grizzly bear's food habits. As bears are omnivorous, the diet of bears can be quite extensive and opportunistic. Apart from insects, 80% of their diet is comprised of plants while 20% is taken up by newbork elk, newborn moose, or by other ungulate species which may have fallen to death over winter (Ward 2005). While availability of plants and animals differs with seasons, bears will typically frequent south-facing avalanche slopes in early spring, feeding upon plants like glacier lilies, horsetails and whitebark pine cones. Bears are not able to digest cellulose and need highly nutritious foods to get through their winter hibernations (Ward 2005). As previously mentioned, whitebark pine cones which are highly nutritious, are a perfect food resource for the bear when waking up from its sleep. Bears are known to dig a couple meters under the snowpack and soil to find the cones which were previously distributed across the forest floor by the red squirrel (Nijhuis 2004). Once the south-facing avalanche slopes dry up, bears will frequent north facing slopes, where snow melt has been delayed, or frequent lower elevations where human interactions are more prevalent (Ward 2005). In their peak season (late summer to early fall) bears prefer to feed upon berries. Buffaloberry, a typical montane shrub, is abundant during this time as berries begin to ripen mid-august. It has been found that even one bear can feed upon 50,000-200,000 buffaloberries each day (Ward 2005). As these berries can typically be found adjacent to roads or human habitat, this can create an increase in bear interactions particularily during this period. Another species which has seen a number of instable periods of population decline is the gray wolf. Although indigenous to the Southern Canadian Rockies, indiscriminate hunting, trapping and organized control programs contributed to the population decline and sometimes permanent elimination of wolves during the period following european settlement (ESRWW 1994). Habitat fragmentation due to resource development in the Rocky Mountain region have also limited the distribution of wolves. It is believed that during the population decline of wolves prior to the 1940's that wolves survived in northern Alberta and are a source of the recolonization of wolves seen today in the Central Rockies. There may have also been a migration of wolves from U.S. Border into Kananaskis valley at which time elk populations were stable enough to provide a peak in population of wolves (ESRWW 1994). However in response to the appearance of rabies in red fox, a federal campaign was initiated in the 1950's which sought to eliminate major carnivores. In the 1970's, the belief in maintaining ecological integrity of predator populations finally slowed the extermination of wolves and once again recolonization of the wold population was encouraged (ESRWW 1994). Today, the Peter Lougheed Wolf Pack makes its home in Evan-Thomas. They have been known to use the Kananaskis Golf course for a number of ungulate killings (ACD 2004). Wolves do also have a large home range and similar to other major predators, inhabit areas relative to the distribution of ungulates. In Evan-Thomas where elevation is not homogenous, wolves tend to have a large territorial range in the summer and travel at higher elevations and in unprotected areas when snowpack is minimized. Most areas used by the wold however remain the same throughout summer and winter (ESRWW 1994). As topography seems to be the limiting factor in the distribution of wolves, it is found that wolves in Evan-Thomas frequently use recreational trails and valley bottoms where snow is minimized. Wolves, however are also sensitive to human activities and will typically travel on routes which are far from high concentration of human development. While wolves also depend on low-land areas and travel routes with limited snow pack, conflicts regarding road density and recreational trails can arise when managing wolf populations in Evan-Thomas (ESRWW 1994).

Park Management (Allison)
6.0 Park Management

The Evan-Thomas Provincial Recreation Area (ETPRA) is one of the many parks and protected areas in Alberta that is managed by the provincial government. As the park is classified as a recreation area, its primary objective is to offer first-rate opportunities for outdoor recreation and tourism (Government of Alberta 2008). While all of the Alberta parks and protected areas management plans are formed on the same basis, there are considerable variations among the spectrum of sites. For instance, ecological reserves, which house rare or fragile environments, are managed strictly for the land’s preservation. Provincial recreation areas are on the other side of the spectrum. While they do not ignore preservation efforts, these areas are maintained, above all, for human recreation. A provincial park, like neighbouring Spray Valley Provincial Park, would be a median example, where the primary objective is to integrate recreation around area preservation. In addition to the range of park objectives, the Government of Alberta hopes to achieve protection in all of the Alberta’s natural regions.

6.1 Funding

Alberta parks and recreations areas are not supported on their own revenue and thus operate on provincial fiscal sources. According to the Government of Alberta’s 2008 budget, the Ministry of Tourism, Parks and Recreation is allocated $248 million for this year’s budget, in which $2.6 million is put into par operations (Government of Alberta 2008). Additionally, the Ministry’s capital investment budget, for this fiscal year, is $36 million, in which most will be distributed to improve and maintain Alberta’s parks and protected areas (Government of Alberta 2008). **Will continue searching for the exact Evan-Thomas budget**

6.2 Evan-Thomas Provincial Recreation Area Management Plan

The present operating plan followed by management, the Evan-Thomas Provincial Recreation Area Management Plan, was established in 2004. The management plan was drawn up by a provincially based committee in conjunction with a great deal of public input. In following Provincial Parks Act legislation the plan states park objectives and regulations.


 * Provincial Parks
 * Funding
 * Regulations
 * Tourism (campgrounds, trails)
 * Human Mitigation
 * Wildfires

Mount Allan and Nakiska
If you have any suggestions etc. please let me know asap!!! Can someone please edit this for me? Thanks.

The history of Mount Allan dates back over 10,000 years when First Nations peoples inhabited the area. Mount Allan is named after John A. Allan, a mountain explorer and the first professor of geology at the University of Alberta. Many local people were familiar with this mountain because of the coal mine. It gained global fame when it was named as the location for the alpine events for the 1988 Winter Olympics. The development of Mount Allan into a ski area was controversial as it was identified as important animal habitat, especially for Alberta’s largest heard of Big Horn Sheep.

The name of the ski area and the names of the expert runs commemorate the First Nations peoples who were the first inhabitants of the area. The ski hill was named Nakiska, which means ‘to meet’ in Cree. This name was chosen to reflect the fact that the world would be meeting there in February 1988 for the Winter Olympics. The expert runs were named after influential first nations of the 1800 and 1900s. Walking Buffalo was an influential First Nations leader who, in 1958, travelled to 27 countries in 4 months to spread Native wisdom and encourage peace (Alberta Online Encyclopedia). Powderface was the name of a prominent Stoney family that lived near Bragg Creek(www.rockiesguide.com).

The original proposal to the Olympic Committee named Mount Sparrowhawk as the location for the alpine skiing events. Calgary was granted the Olympics based on the development of this mountain. Shortly after they were awarded the Olympics it was decided that Mount Allan would be the site for the Alpine events. This decision was controversial because it ignored an agreement signed by the Department of Parks and Wildlife and the Department of Tourism in 1979 that ensured the area would not be developed. “The Alberta Fish and Wildlife Division had cursorily identified Mount Allan as extremely valuable wildlife habitat” (Horejsi, 1986).

Mount Allan was identified as important habitat for Alberta’s largest heard (~300) of Big Horn Sheep. It was also habitat for “one of the two most important areas for grizzlies in Kananaskis Country” (Pissot et al 2003) and for wolves, elk and mule deer. The east slopes of the Rocky Mountains are important winter habitat for many animals because the winters are not as harsh as they would be on the west slopes due to the presence of chinooks. The problem with conserving the habitat, specifically for Big Horn Sheep, was that the number, range and ecology of the animals were unknown. Even before the development began the Centennial Trail on Mount Allan was constructed directly through the Big Horn Sheep winter and summer ranges and lambing area. The winter range is the most important range for the Big Horn Sheep.

The Big Horn Sheep populations have struggled in the area since the late 1800s. This was due to “year-round, non-selective hunting by first nations people, explorers, miners, and railways workers” (Demarchi et al 2000). Their population declined in the late 1800s and early 1900s due to severe winters, forage competition with cattle and wild horses, and railway and mining construction. The population has continued to struggle throughout the last century due to exotic disease, fire suppression, encroachment on ranges, highways and railways death (Demarchi et al 2000).

A study was conducted by Brian L. Horejsi and Garry E. Hornbeck on the Big Horn Sheep population on Mount Allan. Between May 1984 and June 1985 Horejsi and Hornbeck made 30 day-long trips to the mountain. Their goal was to, “count and classify the sheep using the winter range from the peak of Mount Allan south and east including that part of an adjoining buttress, Mount Collembola, visible from the Olympic ski development” (Horejsi, 1986). Horejsi and Hornbeck found that a considerable number of sheep occupy the area within the immediate sphere of influence of the ski development (1986). The researcher came to three important conclusions. The greatest number of sheep was observed in February, which coincided with the Winter Olympics. Of importance, 35 females were observed within that period. At least 40% of all the sheep in the population depend at least partially on Mount Allan as a winter range and at least 101 sheep were present on the lower slopes during the rut (Horejsi, 1986).

The current estimate of the population of Big Horn Sheep on Mount Allan is 300. This number is the same as in 1986 suggesting that perhaps the conservation initiatives in place have maintained the population for the last two decades. Current conservation initiatives, as outlined in the Evan-Thomas Provincial Recreation Area Management Plan include spring closures of the area for lambing and the use of the ski runs by the Big Horn Sheep in spring and summer for foraging (2004). Any use of the runs during spring and summer is designed to minimize disturbance to the Big Horn Sheep foraging areas.

The 1988 Olympics were the first time the Alpine events were held on artificial snow. Artificial snow is still used on the ski runs as the area is located on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains and is subject to chinooks. The water for the snow is taken from the Kananaskis River which impacts the fish and the downstream use of the water. The main problem with artificial snow is that it is five times denser than regular snow which affects flora, fauna and soil erosion (Demers/Nanaimo Daily News 2008). When the artificial snow melts it erodes the soil which ultimately leads to more sediment in the river and affects fish habitat (Demers/Nanaimo Daily News 2008).

At present Nakiska only gets 115,000 (Korobanik 2007) visitors annually in comparison with Sunshine that gets over 500,000 (www.skibanff.com). Of the approximately 115,000 annual visitors, about 99% of them are Albertans (Korobanik 2007). In comparison Sunshine has visitors from all over the world and the season runs from mid-November to May long weekend (www.skibanff.com). In 1995, the Resorts of the Canadian Rockies took over management of Nakiska. The resort was facing nine years with no profit. The problem is that Nakiska caters to a small market, mainly racing clubs that train on, “steep, hard-packed trails” (Korobanik 2007) It is still owned by the provincial government, however, the government only gets five percent of revenue over $1 million. In 2005-2006 for example, the government got $140,000 (Korobanik 2007). The lifts require work as they are more than 20 years old, and John Locke, former part-owner of Nakiska said “they do not have enough profit to fix the chairlifts and all revenue currently is used to maintain the lifts” Edwards and Scotton 2003). Simon Hudson, a tourism Professor at the University of Calgary concluded, “Ski areas operating inside parks are at a disadvantage to those outside because they cannot offer on-site accommodation” (Edwards and Scotton 2003). A 1991 survey by Nakiska found that the majority of the 1000 respondents felt that the ski area was “too windy, too icy and doesn’t have enough snow” (Slade 1991).  This is despite the $5 million snow making system which was used during the Olympics.

Climate change is threatening ski hills around the world and Nakiska already makes a large portion of its snow and has fewer visitors than surrounding mountains. It only has 2.5m average annual snowfall compared to 9m at Sunshine. "Twenty-five years ago, you didn't need snow making," said Lake Louise spokesman John Ross, "but snowfalls have diminished. Either that or the measuring sticks were different” (Ireland 1991).  The cost of snowmaking accounts for a large portion of Nakiska’s budget as they are subject to frequent chinooks.  The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) calculates the global average surface temperature has increased 0.4 to 0.8°C over the last century (2001).  A significant finding is that the 1990s was the warmest decade since 1861 (IPCC 2001).  Buerki et al investigated the impact of climate change on winter sports in Canada, Australia and the Alps (2006).  They found that the average ski season is going to decrease by 0-16% in the 2020s and for the same time period, snowmaking would need to increase by 36-144% to compensate for less snow (Burerki et al, 2006).

In conclusion, Mount Allan is an exemplary example of the connections between the past, present and future. The past is commemorated in the use of First Nations word, Nakiska and the naming of the expert runs after influential First Nations. Mount Allan was then developed into a ski area, which resulted in controversy and continues to be an area of discussion into the future. The ski area was developed in important animal habitat; despite this the population seems to be maintained. The development altered the landscape and the dense artificial snow continues to erode the soil and causes further environmental degradation in the river systems. The future of Nakiska is quite uncertain as climate change means the ski season will be shorter and more artificial snow will need to be made, making the economic outlook bleak.